Daniel Master, following the work of Jacek Michniewicz’s Petrographic Group I for Roman Qumran, identified samples from Qumran as belonging to this petro-fabric. Michniewicz’s group is distinguished by biomicritic sand-sized calcite fragments containing foraminifers accompanied by 5-10% quartz silt (2009: 38, 135-6) Michniewicz and his collaborators were able to identify the specific age of the foraminifers, demonstrating that they come from Cretaceous deposits. This distinguishes these foraminiferal chalks [see Taqiye Marl] from those in the later Eocene hills west of Jerusalem (2009: 40-42). In chemical analyses conducted by Michniewicz, Petrographic Group I was closest to samples taken from the Wadi Qumran (131), though the modern clay samples from the Wadi Qumran still had some chemical differences. Due to the lack of an absolute chemical match, Michniewicz was cautious in his argument that these samples were made from local Qumran clays (139). Indeed, the petrographic profile of the material from Wadi Qumran described in Michniewicz and Krzyśko (2003: 65) lacks the silt sized quartz that is typical of Petrographic Group I. However, this quartz silt fraction is present in samples from alluvial deposits farther to south (2003: 63).

This petro-fabric refers to calcareous and Upper Cretaceous foraminiferous matrices that are rendzina soils. If it is possible to identify the date of the foraminifera to the Upper Cretaceous (as here) then the material should be related to this petrofabric (#7). If the foraminifera are undatable, then the material should instead be related to petrofabric calcareous-foraminiferous-rendzina-soil (#24). Rendzina soils develop as a result of erosion and attrition processes mainly on Senonian and Eocene chalk and Cenomanian marl formations. They are very common throughout the hilly and mountainous regions of the eastern Mediterranean, where average annual precipitation is 400–900 mm (Dan et al. 1975; Ravikovitch 1981: 87–101; Singer 2007: 103–123).

Rendzina soils are widely distributed in Israel, the Lebanon and Syria. In Israel, these soils cover broad areas, mainly along the Judean-Samarian ridges, along the Carmel ridge (mainly the Menashe region) and throughout the Galilee. Rendzinas also occur in the upper Shephelah. The use of rendzina soil as raw material for ceramic products is widely attested throughout all periods, mainly in the Shephelah and in northern Israel.

Afula (Israel/Jezreel Valley)

Beth She'an, Scythopolis (Israel/Beth She'an Valley)

Horbat Bet Zeneta (Israel/Galilee)

Khirbet Qeiyafa (Israel/Shephelah)

Magdala (Israel/Galilee)

Masada (Israel/Negev)

Mt. Carmel, St. Mary (Israel/Carmel Mountains)

Qedesh/Kedesh (Israel/Galilee)

Safed (Israel/Galilee)

Sha'ar Hagolan (Israel/Jordan Valley north)

Shikhin (Israel/Galilee)

Tel Azekah (Israel/Shephelah)

Tel Gush Halav (Israel/Galilee)

Tel Yoqneam (Israel/Jezreel Valley)

Tiberias (Israel/Galilee)

Jericho, Hasmonean/Herodian palaces (Israel-Palestinian Authority/Jordan Valley)

Jerusalem, City of David/Ophel/Silwan (Israel-Palestinian Authority/Central Highlands)

Jerusalem, Old City/East Jerusalem (Israel-Palestinian Authority/Central Highlands)

Qumran (Israel-Palestinian Authority/Jordan Valley)

Ramat Rahel (Israel-Palestinian Authority/Central Highlands)

Tall Hisban (Jordan/Central Highlands)

Tell el-Burak (Lebanon/Southern Coast)